Under the consolidation exercise, more than 9,000 circulars and directions, issued up to October 9, 2025 have now been streamlined into 238 Master Directions, drafts for which were notified on October 10, 2025, covering 11 categories of regulated entities across 30 functional areas.
From November 28, 2025, all RBI-regulated entities are now governed by a completely new set of regulations.
We have prepared a complete comparative snapshot of the familiar regulations and their new avatars for commercial banks. Further, wherever applicable, we have highlighted the changes from the notified drafts, and added comfort comments where the regulations remain unchanged from the drafts.
A joint World Bank-IMF team visited India in 2024 to update the findings of the Financial Sector Assessment Program (FSAP), which took place in 2017. World Bank on October 30, 2025 released the report1 which summarises the main findings of the mission, identifies key financial development issues, and provides policy recommendations.
We were in touch with the FSA team for our recommendations on certain aspects. The FSA recommendation on leasing (discussed below) is based on our feedback.
This article discusses in brief the key takeaways from the FSA Report.
Key Takeaways:
Stronger and More Diversified Financial System: As per the report, India’s financial system has become more resilient, inclusive, and diversified since the previous 2017 assessment. Non-bank financial institutions (NBFIs) and market financing (other than from banks) now account for 44% of total financial assets—up from 35% in 2017—reflecting deeper financial intermediation beyond banks.
Reforms Critical for India’s 2047 Growth Vision: The report suggests that to achieve the target of a USD 30 trillion economy by 2047, India must modernize its financial architecture to channel both domestic and foreign savings into productive investment, deepen capital markets, and attract long-term infrastructure and green financing2.
Macroprudential Tools: The assessment highlights rising systemic risks due to financial diversification and interlinkages. It recommends expanding data collection and deploying macroprudential tools—including introducing Debt Service to Income (DSTI) limits across banks and NBFCs and building counter-cyclical capital buffers (CCyBs) for banks to manage liquidity, intersectoral contagion, household credit risks, and climate-related financial risks
Regulatory and Supervisory Enhancements: While India’s regulatory oversight framework for banks, insurers, and markets is broadly sound, lingering issues include state influence on regulators, limited powers over governance of state-owned entities, and gaps in conglomerate and climate-risk supervision. The report suggests that efforts should be made to ensure better coordination between regulators and extending the scope of the regulatory and supervisory frameworks.
Banking and NBFC Reforms: The report stresses adoption of IFRS 9, enforcing Pillar 2 capital add-ons, and elimination of prudential exemptions for state-owned NBFCs. It also suggests considering additional liquidity requirements tailored to different business models.
Tax treatment of leasing: The report suggests that to diversify MSME finance the tax treatment of leasing should be reviewed to ensure an equal treatment between lease and debt transactions. At present, interest on loans is exempted under the GST laws and hence, there is no GST levied on the loan repayments, however, the entire rentals are subject to GST in case of financial leases.
Transfer of oversight function of NHB to RBI: While regulation of HFCs moved to RBI in 2019, supervision still rests with NHB, which follows a limited, compliance-based approach. Shifting supervision to RBI would strengthen oversight and remove the conflict of interest since NHB also acts as promoter and refinancer for HFCs.
MSME Finance: The report recommends integrating TReDs with the e-invoicing portal for automatic invoice uploads. It also suggests incentivizing large buyers and mandating state-owned enterprises to upload invoices to improve cash flow for MSMEs. Further, the report also mentions that SIDBI’s funding support to NBFCs, including NBFC factors, should be increased, along with developing credit enhancement and guarantee facilities for NBFC bonds and MSME loan securitizations.
As a part of the RBI’s recent consolidation exercise, RBI has released Draft Reserve Bank of India (Commercial Banks – Governance) Directions, 2025. This exercise integrates decades of existing circulars into a streamlined framework, enhancing clarity and ease of governance. While primarily a consolidation, the RBI has undertaken extensive clause shifting, reorganisation, and pruning of redundancies to improve accessibility. Further, new provisions have been introduced for Private Sector Banks (PVBs) in line with the Discussion paper on Governance in Commercial Banks in India dated 11th June, 2020 or in alignment with the provisions applicable to Public Sector Banks (PSBs). Below are some of the key highlights from this consolidated framework for PVBs:
1. Additional disqualifications for Fit and Proper Criteria
The Draft Directions specify additional disqualification conditions for a person proposed to be appointed as a director in a PVB. These include:
Common directorship with a Non-Banking Financial Institution (NBFI) or
Association of the proposed candidate with such institutions in any other capacity.
The institutions engaged in the following activities are covered by the said restriction:
finance,
investment,
money lending,
hire purchase,
leasing,
chit / kuri business,
Mutual funds,
Asset Management Companies and
other para-banking companies.
The term “NBFI” has not been used in the Draft Directions, however, taken from the 2020 Discussion Paper. The 2020 Discussion Paper permitted common directorship with NBFIs subject to certain conditions, and defined NBFI as:
Non-banking financial institutions (NBFI) are entities engaged in hire purchase, financing, investment, leasing, money lending, chit/kuri business and other para banking activities such as factoring, primary dealership, underwriting, mutual fund, insurance, pension fund management, investment advisory, portfolio management services, agency business etc.)
The scope of restriction under point (b) is wider, and covers association “in any other capacity”. However, directorship is permitted in such cases, subject to compliance with certain conditions, viz.,
The institution does not enjoy any financial accommodations from the concerned PVB;
Person does not hold whole time appointment in the institution; and
The person does not have substantial interest’ in the institution as defined in Section 5(ne) of the Banking Regulation Act, 1949.
Note that the meaning of “institution” itself is vast, and covers, incorporated and unincorporated entities including individuals.
The proposed inclusion is also in partial alignment with the condition specified in fit and proper criteria for PSBs that states:
A person connected with hire purchase, financing, money lending, investment, leasing and other para banking activities shall not be considered for appointment as elected director.
2. Clarity w.r.t. the role of Board, EDs and NEDs
The 2020 Discussion Paper had elaborate discussion on the role of the board of the banks, primarily drawing reference from the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision Guidelines of 2015, in addition to the existing requirements specified through various circulars.
The Draft Directions further sets out the expectations from the MD/ CEO/ WTDs vis-a-vis NEDs, alongside the role of board.
Para 51 and 52 of the Draft Directions specifies role of the board, which includes:
Conduct affairs in a solvent, adequately liquid and reasonably profitable manner
Ensure that the Memorandum and the Articles of Association spell out the duties, functions and obligations of the directors towards the PVB
Institutionalise discussions between its management and the Board on quality of internal control systems
Set and enforce clear lines of responsibility and accountability for itself as well as the senior management and throughout the organization.
For NEDs, Para 52 & 53 of the Draft Directions sets out the expectations from the NEDs, including areas that NEDs should pay particular attention to. Para 54 further provides various positive and negative stipulations, some of which are stated below:
Negative stipulations
Positive stipulations
not be an employee of the PVB.
have no power to act on behalf of the PVB
nor can they give any direction to the employees of the PVB on behalf of the management.
desist from sending any instructions to the individual officers on any matters and such cases, if any, shall be routed through the MD&CEO / CEO of the PVB.
exercise power only as a member of a collective body, unless specifically authorised by a Board resolution,
not sponsor any individual proposal, nor shall they approach directly the Branch Managers to sanction loans or other facilities to any constituent.
not sponsor individual cases of employees or officers regarding their recruitment, transfers, promotions, postings and other related matters.
act with ordinary person’s care and prudence
disclose the nature of interest to Board wherever directly or indirectly interested or concerned in any contract, loan, arrangement or proposal entered/ proposed to be entered and not to vote on any such proposal [similar to sec. 184 of CA]
As regards CEO & MD/ CEO/ WTDs, Para 56 of the Draft Directions state that they should act as a bridge between the board and management. They are charged with the responsibility of efficient management of the bank on behalf of the Board. It is through them that the programmes, policies and decisions approved by the Board are made effective and again it is through them that the Board gets the responses and reactions of those at various levels of the organisations to its deliberations.
A mapping of the various provisions of the Draft Directions as applicable to PVBs vis-a-vis the existing applicable circular setting out such requirements can be accessed here.
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In its current hectic phase of revamping regulations, the RBI has issued Draft Directions for lending and contracting with related parties. Separate sets have been issued for commercial banks, other banks, NBFCs and financial institutions.
The definition of “related party” is more rationalised and improvised over the existing definitions in Companies Act or LODR Regulations. Loans above a “materiality threshold” [which is scaled based on capital in case of banks, and based on base/middle/upper layer status in case of NBFCs] will require board approval, and nevertheless, will require regulatory reporting as well as disclosure in financial statements. In case of contracts or arrangements with related parties, with the scope of the term derived from sec 188 (1) of the Companies Act, there are no approval processes, but disclosure norms will apply. In the case of banks, trustees of funds set up by banks are also brought within the ambit of “related persons”.
https://vinodkothari.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/vinod-kothari-logo.png00Staffhttps://vinodkothari.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/vinod-kothari-logo.pngStaff2025-10-04 11:41:502025-10-30 10:34:43Rules of Restraint: RBI proposes revised norms on Related Party Lending and Contracting
The RBI’s regulatory approach to investments by Regulated Entities (REs) in Alternate Investment Funds (AIFs) has undergone a remarkable transformation over the past two years. Initially, the RBI responded to the risks of “evergreening”, where banks and NBFCs could mask bad loans by routing fresh funds to existing debtor companies via AIF structures, by issuing stringent circulars in December 20231 and March 20242 (collectively known as ‘Previous Circulars’). The December 2023 circular imposed a blanket ban on RE investments in AIFs that had downstream exposures to debtor companies, while the March 2024 clarification excluded pure equity investments (not hybrid ones) from this restriction. This stance aimed to strengthen asset quality but quickly highlighted significant operational and market challenges for institutional investors and the AIF ecosystem. Many leading banks took significant provisioning losses, as the Circulars required lenders to dispose off the AIF investments; clearly, there was no such secondary market.
In response to the feedback from the financial sector, as well as evolving oversight by other regulators like SEBI, the RBI undertook a comprehensive review of its framework and issued Draft Directions- Investment by Regulated Entities in Alternate Investment Funds (‘Draft Directions’) on May 19, 20253. The Draft Directions have now been finalised as Reserve Bank of India (Investment in AIF) Directions, 2025 (‘Final Directions’) on 29th May, 2025. The Final Directions shift away from outright prohibitions and instead introduce a carefully balanced regime of prudential limits, targeted provisioning requirements, and enhanced governance standards.
Comparison at a Glance
A compressed comparison between Previous Circulars and Final Directions is as follows –
Particulars
Previous Circulars
Final Directions
Intent/Implication
Blanket Ban
Blanket ban on RE investments in AIFs lending to debtor companies (except equity)
No outright ban; investments allowed with limits, provisioning, and other prudential controls
Move from a complete prohibition to a limit-based regime. Max. Exposures as defined (see below) taken as prudential limits
Definition of debtor company
Only equity shares excluded for the purpose of reckoning “investment” exposure of RE in the debtor company
Therefore, if RE has made investments in convertible equity, it will be considered as an investment exposure in the counterparty – thereby, the directions become inapplicable in all such cases.
Individual Investment Limit in any AIF scheme
Not applicable (ban in place)
Max 10% of AIF corpus by a single RE, subject to a max. of 5% in case of an AIF, which has downstream investments in a debtor company of RE.
Controls individual exposure risk. Lower threshold in cases where AIF has downstream investments.
Collective Investment Limit by all REs in any AIF scheme
Would require monitoring at the scheme level itself.
Downstream investments by AIF in the nature of equity or convertible equity
Equity shares were excluded, but hybrid instruments were not.
All equity instruments
Exclusions from downstream investments widened to include convertible equity as well. Therefore, if the scheme has invested in any equity instruments of the debtor company, the Circular does not hit the RE.
Provisioning
100% provisioning to the extent of investment by the RE in the AIF scheme which is further invested by the AIF in the debtor company, and not on the entire investment of the RE in the AIF scheme or 30-day liquidation, if breach
If >5% in AIF with exposure to debtor, 100% provision on look-through exposure, capped at RE’s direct exposure5 (see illustrations below)
No impact vis-a-vis Previous Circulars. For provisioning requirements, see illustrations later.
Subordinated Units/Capital
Equal Tier I/II deduction for subordinated units with a priority distribution model
Entire investment deducted proportionately from Tier 1 and Tier 2 capital proportionately
Adjustments from Tier I and II, now to be done proportionately, instead of equally.
Investment Policy
Not emphasized
Mandatory board-approved6 investment policy for AIF investments
One of the actionables on the part of REs – their investment policies should now have suitable provisions around investments in AIFs keeping in view provisions of these Directions
Exemptions
No specific exemption. However, Investments by REs in AIFs through intermediaries such as fund of funds or mutual funds were excluded from the scope of circulars.
Prior RBI-approved investments exempt; Government notified AIFs may be exempt
Provides operational flexibility and recognizes pre-approved or strategic investments.No specific mention of investments through MFs/FoFs – however, given the nature of these funds, we are of the view that such exclusion would continue.
Transition/Legacy Treatment
Not applicable
Legacy investments may choose to follow old or new rules
See discussion later.
Key Takeaways:
Detailed analysis on certain aspects of the Final Directions is as follows:
Prudential Limits
Under the Previous Circulars, any downstream exposure by an AIF to a regulated entity’s debtor company, regardless of size, triggered a blanket prohibition on RE investments. The Final Directions replace this blanket ban with prudential limits:
10% Individual Limit: No single RE can invest more than 10% of any AIF scheme’s corpus.
20% Collective Limit: All REs combined cannot exceed 20% of any AIF scheme’s corpus; and
5% Specific Limit: Special provisioning requirements apply when an RE’s investment exceeds 5% of an AIF’s corpus, which has made downstream investments in a debtor company.
Therefore, if an AIF has existing investments in a debtor company (which has loan/investment exposures from an RE), the RE cannot invest more than 5% in the scheme. But what happens in a scenario where RE already has a 10% exposure in an AIF and the AIF does a downstream investment (in forms other than equity instruments) in a debtor company? Practically speaking, AIF cannot ask every time it invests in a company whether a particular RE has exposure to that company or not. In such a case, as a consequence of such downstream investment, RE may either have to liquidate its investments, or make provisioning in accordance with the Final Directions. Hence, in practice, given the complexities involved, it appears that REs will have to conservatively keep AIF stakes at or below 5% to avoid the consequences as above.
Now, consider a scenario – where the investee AIF invests in a company (which is not a debtor company of RE), which in turn, invests in the debtor company. Will the restrictions still apply? In our view, it is a well-established principle that substance prevails over form. If a clear nexus could be established between two transactions – first being investment by AIF in the intermediate company, and second being routing of funds from intermediate company to debtor company, it would clearly tantamount to circumventing the provisions. Hence, the provisioning norms would still kick-in.
Provisioning Requirements
Coming to the provisioning part, the Final Directions require REs to make 100 per cent provision to the extent of its proportionate investment in the debtor company through the AIF Scheme, subject to a maximum of its direct loan and/ or investment exposure to the debtor company, if the REs exposure to an AIF exceeds 5% and that AIF has exposure to its debtor company. The requirement is quite obvious – RE cannot be required to create provisioning in its books more than the exposure on the debtor company as it stands in the RE’s books.
The provisioning requirements can be understood with the help of the following illustrations:
Scenario
Illustration
Extent of provisioning required
Existing investment of RE in AIF Scheme (direct loan and/or investment exposure exists as on date or in the past 12 months)
For example, an RE has a loan exposure of 10 cr on a debtor company and the RE makes an investment of 60 cr in an AIF (which has a corpus of 800 cr), the RE’s share in the corpus of the AIF turns out to be 7.5%. The AIF further invested 200 cr in the debtor company of the RE.
The proportionate share of the RE in the investment of AIF in the debtor company comes out to be 15 cr (7.5% of 200 cr). However, the RE’s loan exposure is 10 crores only. Therefore, provisioning is required to the extent of Rs. 10 crores.
Existing investment of RE in AIF Scheme (direct loan and/or investment exposure does not exist as on date or in the past 12 months)
Facts being same as above, in such a scenario, the provisioning requirement shall be minimum of the following two:-15 cr(full provisioning of the proportionate exposure); or-0 (full provisioning subject to the REs direct loan exposure in the debtor company)
Therefore, if direct exposure=0, then the minimum=0 and hence no requirement to create provision.
Some possible measures which REs can adopt to ensure compliance are as follows:
Maintain an up-to-date, board-approved AIF investment policy aligned with both RBI and SEBI rules;
Implement robust internal systems for real-time tracking of all AIF investments and debtor exposures (including the 12-month history);
Require regular, detailed portfolio disclosures from AIF managers;
appropriate monitoring and automated alerts for nearing the 5%/10%/20% thresholds; and
Establish suitable escalation procedures for potential breaches or ambiguities.
Further, it shall be noted that the intent is NOT to bar REs from ever investing more than 5% in AIFs. The cap is soft, provisioning is only required if there is a debtor company overlap. But the practical effect is, unless AIFs develop robust real-time reporting/disclosure and REs set up systems to track (and predict) debtor overlap, 5% becomes a limit for specifically the large-scale REs for practical purposes.
Investment Policy
The Final Directions call for framing and implementing an investment policy (amending if already exists) which shall have suitable provisions governing its investments in an AIF Scheme, compliant with extant law and regulations. Para 5 of the Final Directions does not mandate board approval of that policy, however, Para 29 of the RBI’s Master Directions on Scale Based Regulations stipulates that any investment policy must be formally approved by the Board. In light of this broader governance requirement, it is our view that an RE’s AIF investment policy should similarly receive Board approval. Below is a tentative list of key elements to be included in the investment policy:
Limits: 10% individual, 20% collective, with 5% threshold alerts;
Provision for real-time 12-month debtor-exposure monitoring and pre-investment checks;
Clear provisioning methodology: 100% look-through at >5%, capped by direct exposure; proportional Tier-1/Tier-2 deduction for subordinated units; and
Approval procedures for making/continuing with AIF investments; decision-making process
Applicability of the provisions of these Directions on investments made pursuant to commitments existing on or before the effective date of these Directions.
Subordinated Units Treatment
Under the Final Directions, investments by REs in the subordinated units7 of any AIF scheme must now be fully deducted from their capital funds, proportionately from Tier I and Tier II as against equal deduction under the Previous Circulars. While the March 2024 Circular clarified that reference to investment in subordinated units of AIF Scheme includes all forms of subordinated exposures, including investment in the nature of sponsor units; the same has not been clarified under the Final Directions. However, the scope remains the same in our view.
What happens to positions that already exist when the Final Directions arrive?
As regards effective date, Final Directions shall come into effect from January 1, 2026 or any such earlier date as may be decided as per their internal policy by the REs.
Although, under the Final Directions, the Previous Circulars are formally repealed, the Final Directions has prescribed the following transition mechanism:
Time of making Investments by RE in AIF
Permissible treatment under Final Directions
New commitments (post-effective date)
Must comply with the new directions; no grandfathering or mixed approaches allowed
Existing Investments
Where past commitments fully honoured: Continue under old circulars
Partially drawn commitments: One-time choice between old and new regimes
Closing Remarks
The RBI’s evolution from blanket prohibitions to calibrated risk-based oversight in AIF investments represents a mature regulatory approach that balances systemic stability with market development, and provides for enhanced governance standards while maintaining robust safeguards against evergreening and regulatory arbitrage.
Of course, there would be certain unavoidable side-effects, e.g. significant operational and compliance burdens on REs, requiring sophisticated real-time monitoring systems, comprehensive debtor exposure tracking, board-approved investment policies, and enhanced coordination with AIF managers. Hence, there can be some challenges to practical implementation. Further, the success of this recalibrated regime will largely depend on the operational readiness of both REs and AIFs to develop transparent monitoring systems and proactive compliance frameworks.
https://vinodkothari.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/vinod-kothari-logo.png00Staffhttps://vinodkothari.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/vinod-kothari-logo.pngStaff2025-07-31 17:45:492025-08-05 11:10:55Round-Tripping Reined: RBI Rolls Out Relaxed Rules for Investments in AIFs
I was giving a collateral-free loan only, but the borrower didn’t agree – he voluntarily came and pledged family gold and silver jewellery!
This is perhaps the way Banks will be reacting after the RBI Clarificatory circular on Voluntary Pledge of Gold (‘Voluntary Pledge Circular’). The Voluntary Pledge Circular dated July 11, 2025 which addresses all Scheduled Commercial Banks (including RRBs & SFBs), State Co-operative Banks, District Central Co-operative Banks states that a a voluntary pledge of gold or silver as collateral by a borrower for an agricultural or MSME loan shall not amount to a violation of the Reserve Bank of India (Lending Against Gold and Silver Collateral) Directions, 2025 (‘Gold Lending Directions’), provided that the sanctioned amount is within the collateral-free limit laid down in the earlier RBI guidelines.
It may be noted that as per separate RBI circulars dated December 6, 2024 and July 24, 2017 farm lending upto Rs. 2 lacs and MSE lending upto Rs. 10 lacs shall be done without collateral.
This clarification by the regulator may enable lenders to circumvent the regulations by categorizing collateral as a voluntary pledge for loans within the collateral-free caps, whereas in reality, the borrower may have been directly or indirectly compelled to offer such collateral.
Further, the circular also makes reference to the Gold Lending Directions. A question may arise if the Gold Lending Directions will apply even in the case of voluntary pledge of gold.
The Gold Lending Directions should apply in all such cases of voluntary pledges to avoid a situation of regulatory arbitrage, where lenders could potentially bypass regulatory guidelines merely by categorizing the pledge as voluntary.
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We invite you all to join us at the 10th Securitisation Summit, 2022 on 27th May 2022. You are sure to meet the who’s-who of the Indian structured finance space – the originators, investors, rating agencies, legal counsels, accounting experts, global experts, and of course, regulators. The details can be accessed here.
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The stage of development of financial markets infrastructure in a country, amongst many other things, is a mirror of sound legal regulations, corporate governance, judicial certainty, and debtor protection regime within the country. The inflow of global capital is quintessential for financial markets development and allocation of adequate capital resources in growth sectors. In a move to make India a hub for global capital flow, Gujarat International Finance Tech-City (GIFT) has been established as a globally benchmarked International Financial Service Centre (GIFT-IFSC). GIFT-IFSC is India’s first dominant gateway for global capital flows in and out of the country. The GIFT IFSC supports a gamut of financial services inter alia, banking, insurance, asset management, and other financial market activities. Prior to dealing with the regulatory framework governing financial units established in GIFT-IFSC, it is important to understand the broad function of an IFSC.
IFSCs are the Offshore Financial Centers (OFCs) that cater to customers outside their own jurisdiction. IMF defines OFCs as any financial center where the offshore activity takes place. However, this does not limit financial institutions in OFCs from undertaking domestic transactions. Therefore practical definition propounded by IMF is;
“OFC is a center where the bulk of financial sector activity is offshore on both sides of the balance sheet, (that is the counterparties of the majority of financial institutions liabilities and assets are non-residents), where the transactions are initiated elsewhere, and where the majority of the institutions involved are controlled by non-residents.”
Units set up in GIFT-IFSC can broadly be categorised on the basis of business activity intended to being undertaken by the entity.
This write-up covers regulations governing banking and financial services undertaken by Banking Units and Finance Companies set up in IFSC. The first part touches upon the benefits of setting up a unit in IFSC. The second part covers Banking Units and permitted financial activities. The third part covers Financial Companies in IFSC along with permissible activities and capital requirements. The fourth part covers financial service transactions to and fro between a financial unit based in IFSC and domestic tariff area (DTA). The last part deals with the applicable KYC/PMLA compliances and the currency of transactions with units based in IFSC.
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