Press Release: Working Group of Ministry of Civil Aviation, which Vinod Kothari was a part of, releases its report

The Working Group on Developing Avenues for Aircraft Financing and Leasing Activities in India constituted by Ministry of Civil Aviation has submitted its report ‘Project Rupee Raftaar’ which is a road map for developing an Aircraft Financing and Leasing Ecosystem in India. The project is based on the theme of “Flying for All”.

The working group comprised of diverse stakeholders from across the government, regulatory authorities, public and private corporates, industry associations, academia, and legal and financial consultants. Mr. Vinod Kothari, Director of Vinod Kothari Consultants was also a part of this working group.

The terms of reference of the group, inter alia, included examining and recommending changes along with potential strategies for making aircraft financing and leasing activities more attractive for entities set up in GIFT-City International Financial Services Centre (IFSC) Its terms of reference, inter alia, included examining and recommending changes along with potential strategies for making aircraft financing and leasing activities more attractive for entities set up in GIFT-City International Financial Services Centre (IFSC).

The report of the group also refers to India Leasing Report-2016, with subsequent editions, produced by M/s. Vinod Kothari Consultants Pvt. Ltd. for details on the growth and development of the overall Indian leasing industry, and notably the classification of lease products, accounting standards, and regulatory provisions and issues.
The detailed report submitted by the Working Group can be viewed here: https://www.globalaviationsummit.in/documents/PROJECTRUPEERAFTAAR.pdf

Large Exposures Framework: New RBI rules to deter banks’ concentric lending

-Kanakprabha Jethani |Executive
Vinod Kothari Consultants

Background

The RBI has made some crucial amendments to the Large Exposures Framework (LEF) by notification dated June 03, 2019. These changes are intended to align with global practices, such as look through approach for identifying exposures, determination of the group of “connected” counterparties, to name a few.

The LEF, announced by the RBI vide its notification dated December 01, 2016[1] and amended through notification dated June 03, 2019[2], is applicable with effect from April 1, 2019. However, the provisions relating to Introduction of economic interdependence criteria in definition of connected counterparties and non-centrally cleared derivatives exposures shall become applicable from April 1, 2020. This framework is likely to widen the scope of the definition of group of connected counterparties on one hand, and narrowing down the same by expanding the scope of exempted counterparties. Further, look-through approach demarcates between direct or indirect exposure of banks in various counterparties.

More about the LEF

A bank may have exposure to various large borrowers, and of group of entities that are related to each other. This exposure in large borrowers, whether singularly or by way of different related entities, results in concentration of bank’s exposure in the same group, thus increasing the credit risk of the bank. There have been examples of large banking failures throughout the world. In the words of the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision-

“Throughout history there have been instances of banks failing due to concentrated exposures to individual counterparties (eg Johnson Matthey Bankers in the United Kingdom in 1984, the Korean banking crisis in the late 1990s). Large exposures regulation has been developed as a tool for limiting the maximum loss a bank could face in the event of a sudden counterparty failure to a level that does not endanger the bank’s solvency.”

To deal with the risk arising out of such concentration, there has to be in place limits on concentration in a single borrower or a borrower group. Accordingly, after considering various frameworks being included in local laws and banking regulations and recommendations of committees such as Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, ‘Supervisory framework for measuring and controlling large exposures’[3] was issued by the said committee. The same was adopted by the RBI in respect of banks in India.

The Large Exposure Framework (LEF) shall be applied by banks at group level (considering assets and liabilities of borrower and its subsidiaries, joint ventures and associates) as well as at solo level (considering the capital strength and risk profile of borrower only).

Reporting of large exposure: As per the LEF, large exposure shall mean exposure of 10% or more of the eligible capital base of the bank in a single counterparty or a group of counterparties. The same shall be reported to Department of Banking Supervision, Central Office, Reserve Bank of India.

Limit on large exposure: the maximum exposure of a bank in a single counterparty shall not be more than 20% of its eligible capital base at any time. This limit shall be raised to 25% of bank’s eligible capital base in case of a group of counterparties.

Eligible capital base, in this reference shall mean the aggregate of Tier 1 capital as defined in Basel III – Capital Regulation[4] as per the latest balance sheet of the company, infusion of capital under Tier I after the published balance sheet date and profits accrued during the year which are not in deviation of more than 25% from the average profit of four quarters.

Applicability

The LEF shall be applicable on all scheduled commercial banks in India, with respect to their counterparties only.

The LEF has become applicable with effect from April 1, 2019. The revised guidelines on LEF shall also become applicable from the same date with retrospective effect except for the provisions of economic interdependence and non-centrally cleared derivative exposures.

What sort of borrowers are affected?

The revised guidelines have an impact on the borrowers who used to take advantage of different entities and hide behind the corporate veil to avail funding. The introduction of economic interdependence as a criteria for determining connected counterparties ensures that no same persons, whether promoters or management avail facilities through other entity.

Further, borrowers who operate as special purposes vehicles, securitisation structures or other structures having investments in underlying assets would also be affected as the banks will now look-through the structure to identify the counterparty corresponding the underlying asset.

However, the LEF does not address issues relating to lending to any specific sector or such other exposures.

What happens to affected borrowers?

The borrowers taking advantage of corporate veil will no more be able to avail funds in the covers of veil. The entities having same or related parties in their management shall not be able to avail funds exceeding the exposure limit. This would result in shrinkage of the availability of borrowed funds that would have otherwise been available to the entities. Also, entities operating as aforementioned structures, are likely to face contraction of borrowed fund availability.

Global framework

The global framework on large exposures called the Supervisory framework for measuring and controlling large exposures became applicable from 1st Jan 2019. The key features of the global framework are as follows:

  • Norms for determining scope of counterparties and exemptions thereto.
  • Specification of limits of large exposures and reporting requirements.
  • The sum of exposure to a single borrower or a group of connected borrowers shall not exceed 25% of bank’s available capital base.
  • If a G-SIB (Global systemically Important Banks) shall not exceed exposure limit of 15% of its available capital base in another G-SIB.
  • Principles for measurement of value of exposures.
  • Techniques for mitigation of credit risk.
  • Treatment of sovereign exposures, interbank exposures, exposures on covered bonds collective investment schemes, securitisation vehicles or other structures having underlying assets and in central counterparties been specified.

“Connected” borrowers

A bank shall lend within concentration limits prescribed in the LEF. For this purpose, the aggregate of concentration in all the connected counterparties shall be considered. Basically, connected counterparties are those parties which have such a relationship among themselves, either by way of control or interdependence, that failure of one of them would result in failure of the other too. The LEF provides the following criteria for determining the “connected” relationship between counterparties.

  • Control- where one of the counterparties has direct or indirect control over the other, ‘Control maybe determined considering the following:
    • holding 50% or more of total voting rights
    • having significant influence in appointment of managers, supervisors etc.
    • significant influence on senior management
    • where both the counterparties are controlled by a third party
    • Qualitative guidance on determining control as provided in accounting standards.
    • Common owners, shareholders, management etc.
  • Economic interdependence- where if one of the counterparties is facing problems in funding or repayment, the other party would also be likely to face similar difficulties. Following criteria has to be considered for determining economic interdependence between entities:
    • Where 50% or more of gross receipts or expenditures is derived from the counterparty
    • Where one counterparty has guaranteed exposure of the other either fully or partly
    • Significant part of one counterparty’s output is purchased by the other
    • When the counterparties share the source of funds to repay their loans
    • When the counterparties rely on same source of funding

Look through approach

In case of investing vehicles such as collective investment vehicles, securitisation SPVs and other cases such as mutual funds, venture capital funds, alternative investment funds, investment in security receipts, real estate investment trusts, infrastructure investment trusts etc., the recognition of exposures will be done on a see-through or look-through approach. The meaning of look-through approach is the underlying exposures will be recognised in constituents of the pool or the fund, rather than the fund.

When banks invest in structures which themselves have exposures to underlying assets, the bank shall determine if it is able to look-through the structure. If the bank is able to look-through and the exposure of bank in each of the underlying asset of the structure is equal to or above 0.25% of its eligible capital base, the bank must identify specific counterparties corresponding to the underlying asset. The exposure of bank in each of such underlying assets shall be added to the bank’s overall exposure in the corresponding counterparty.

Further, if the exposure in each of the underlying assets is less than 0.25% of bank’s eligible capital base, the exposure maybe assigned to the structure itself.

However, if a bank is unable to identify underlying counterparties in a structure:

  • bank’s exposure in that structure is 0.25% or more of its eligible capital base, the bank shall assign such exposure in the name of “unknown client”.
  • bank’s exposure in that structure is less than 0.25% of its eligible capital base, the exposure shall be assigned to the structure itself.

However, if the exposure of bank in the structure is less than 0.25% of the eligible capital base of the bank, the total exposure maybe assigned to the structure itself, as a distinct counterparty, rather than looking through the structure and assigning it to corresponding counterparties.

Overall impact of the LEF

The primary objective of LEF is to limit the concentration of bank in a single group of borrowers. By specifying criteria for large exposures, determination of “connected” relationship, reporting to RBI, ways to mitigate risk etc. the LEF intends to reduce credit risk of banks caused due to concentration in a single borrower or a group of borrowers.

The application of provisions of LEF will reduce the concentration risk of banks which in turn would result in reduction of credit risk of the bank. It would also result in increased monitoring by the RBI on the lending practices of banks. It is likely to reduce the instances of default in repayments, which have become a routine practice nowadays.

[1] https://www.rbi.org.in/Scripts/NotificationUser.aspx?Id=10757&Mode=0

[2] https://rbi.org.in/Scripts/NotificationUser.aspx?Id=11573&Mode=0

[3] https://www.bis.org/publ/bcbs283.pdf

[4] https://www.rbi.org.in/Scripts/NotificationUser.aspx?Id=9859&Mode=0

Contribution to disaster relief is now an eligible CSR activity

Munmi Phukon, Principal Manager
Vinod Kothari & Company
munmi@vinodkothari.com

Introduction

The Ministry of Corporate Affairs, on 30th May, 2019 issued a Notification amending Schedule VII of the Companies Act, 2013 (Act) which seeks to include disaster management, including relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction activities under CSR activities. The amendment is very crucial considering the recent history of natural disaster the country had witnessed and this was always an expectation of the corporate sector from the Government.

Provisions of law

The Act through Section 135 puts a social obligation on certain class of companies on the basis their turnover and net profits to spend 2% of the average net profits of past 3 years in the activities mentioned in the Schedule. However, the contribution to any disaster management/ relief activities was not specifically covered in the Schedule except for Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund. This was an insufficiency of law due to which the companies were, in a way, forced to restrict themselves to the PM’s Fund despite of their wish to contribute in other funds or to decline the benefit which the society deserves in such circumstances.

The two- fold benefit

Seemingly, the amendment has come out with a relief to the corporates as well as to the society at large. Therefore, the benefit is said to be a two- fold benefit which, in one hand, will ensure welfare of the society and the environment in need and in the other, it will help the corporates deployment of the minimum allocated CSR fund in needy areas in a more effective way.

Comments on draft Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India (Bankruptcy Process for Personal Guarantors to Corporate Debtors) Regulations

Safe in sandbox: India provides cocoon to fintech start-ups

-Kanakprabha Jethani

kanak@vinodkothari.com, finserv@vinodkothari.com

Published on April 22, 2019 | Updated as on April 22, 2020

Background

April 2019 marks the introduction of a structured proposal[1] on regulatory sandboxes (“Proposal”). ‘Sandboxes’ is a new term and has created a hustle in the market. What are these? What is the hustle all about? The following article gives a brief introduction to this new concept. With the rapidly evolving entities based on financial technology (Fintech) having innovative and complex technical model, the regulators have also been preparing themselves to respond and adapt with changing times. To harness such innovative business concepts, several developed countries and emerging economies have recognised the concept of ‘regulatory sandboxes’. Regulatory sandboxes or RS is a framework which allows an innovative startup involved in financial technologies to undergo live testing in a controlled environment where the regulator may or may not permit certain regulatory relaxations for the purpose of testing. The objective of proposing RS is to allow new and innovative projects to conduct live testing and enable learning by doing approach. The objective behind the framework is to facilitate development of potentially beneficial but risky innovations while ensuring the safety of end users and stability of the marketplace at large. Symbolically, RSs’ are a cocoon in which the startups stay for some time undergoing testing and growing simultaneously, and where it is determined whether they should be launched in the market. In furtherance to the recommendation of an inter-regulatory Working Group (WG) vide its Report on FinTech and Digital Banking1 , the Reserve Bank of India has released the draft ‘Enabling Framework for Regulatory Sandbox’ on April 18, 20192 . The final guidelines shall be released based on the comments of the stakeholders on the aforesaid draft.

Benefits and Limitations

Benefits:

  • Regulator can obtain a first-hand view of benefits and risks involved in the project and make future policies accordingly.
  • Product can be tested without an expensive launch and any shortcoming thereto can be rectified at initial stages.
  • Improvement in pace of innovation, financial inclusion and reach.
  • Firms working closely with RS’s garner a greater degree of legitimacy with investors and customers alike.

Limitations:

  • Applicant may tend to lose flexibility and time while undergoing testing.
  • Even after a successful testing, the applicant will require all the statutory approvals before its launch in the market.
  • They require time and skill of the regulator for assessing the complex innovation, which the regulator might not possess.
  • It demands additional manpower and resources on part of regulator so as to define RS plans and conduct proper assessment.

Emergence of concept of RS

The concept of RS emerged soon after the Global Financial Crisis (GFC) in 2007-08. It steadily gained prominence and in 2012, Project Catalyst introduced by US Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) finally gave rise to the sandbox concept. In 2015, UK Government Office for Science exhibited the benefits of “close collaboration between regulator, institutions and FinTech companies from clinical environment or real people” through its FinTech Future report. In 2016, UK Financial Conduct Authority launched its regulatory sandbox. Emergence of RS in India In February 2018, RBI launched report of working group on FinTech and digital banking. It recommended Institute for Development and Research in Banking Technology (IDRBT) as the entity whose expertise could run RS in India in cooperation with RBI. After immense deliberations and research, RBI announced its detailed proposal on RS in April 2019. Some of the provisions of the proposal are described hereunder.

Who can apply?

A FinTech firm which fulfills criteria of a startup prescribed by the government can apply for an entry to RS. Few cohorts are to be run whereby there will be a limited number of entities in each cohort testing their products during a stipulated period. The RS must be based on thematic cohorts focusing on financial inclusion, payments and lending, digital KYC etc. Generally , 10-12 companies form part of each cohort which are selected by RBI through a selection process detailed in “Fit and Proper Criteria for Selection of Participants in RS”. Once approval is granted by RBI, the applicant becomes entity responsible for operating in RS. Focus of RBI while selecting the applicants for RS will be on following products/services or technologies:

Innovative Products/Services

  • Retail payments
  • Money transfer services
  • Marketplace lending
  • Digital KYC
  • Financial advisory services
  • Wealth management services
  • Digital identification services
  • Smart contracts
  • Financial inclusion products
  • Cyber security products Innovative Technology
  • Mobile technology applications (payments, digital identity, etc.)
  • Data Analytics
  • Application Program Interface (APIs) services
  • Applications under block chain technologies
  • Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning applications

Who cannot apply?

Following product/services/technology shall not be considered for entry in RS:

  • Credit registry
  • Credit information
  • Crypto currency/Crypto assets services
  • Trading/investing/settling in crypto assets
  • Initial Coin Offerings, etc.
  • Chain marketing services
  • Any product/services which have been banned by the regulators/Government of India

For how long does a company stay in the cocoon?

A cohort generally operates for a period of 6 months. However, the period can be extended on application of the entity. Also, RBI may, at its discretion discontinue testing of certain entities which fails to achieve its intended purpose. RS operates in following stages:

S.No. Stage Time period Purpose
1 Preliminary screening 4 weeks The applicant is made aware of objectives and principles of RS.
2 Test design 3 weeks FinTech Unit finalises the test design of the entity.
3 Application assessment 3 weeks Vetting of test design and modification.
4 Testing 12 weeks Monitoring and generation of evidence to assess the testing.
5 Evaluation 4 weeks Viability of the project is confirmed by RBI

An alternative to RS

An alternative approach used in developing countries is known as the “test and learn” approach. It is a custom-made solution created by negotiations and dialogue between regulator and innovator for testing the innovation. M-PESA in Kenya emerged after the ‘test-and-learn’ approach was applied in 2005. The basic difference between RS and test-and-learn approach is that a RS is more transparent, standardized and published process. Also, various private, proprietary or industry led sandboxes are being operated in various countries on a commercial or non-commercial basis. They conduct testing and experimentation off the market and without involvement of any regulator. Asean Financial Innovation Network (AFIN) is an example of industry led sandbox.

Globalization in RS

A noteworthy RS in the Global context has been the UK’s Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) which has accepted 89 firms since its launch in 2016. It was one of the early propagators to lead the efforts for GFIN and a global regulatory sandbox. Global Financial Innovation Network (GFIN) is a network of 11 financial regulators mostly of developed countries and related organizations. The objective of GFIN is to establish a network of regulators, to frame joint policy and enable regulator collaboration as well as facilitate cross border testing for projects with an international market in view.

Final framework for RS

RBI introduced final framework[2] for the RS on August 13, 2019 which is almost on the same lines as the Proposal as mentioned above. However the RBI has relaxed the minimum capital requirement to Rs 25 lakhs in place of Rs. 50 lakhs as required under the draft framework with a view to expand the scope of eligible entities.

SEBI’s framework for RS

In May 2019, SEBI also came up with a discussion paper on RS for entities registered with SEBI under section 12 of SEBI Act. The framework was later on finalised in a board meeting of SEBI held in 2020. In line with the finalised framework, various SEBI regulations have also been amended to include a new chapter, allowing case-to-case based exemptions to entities operating in RS.

The SEBI framework is slightly different from the one prescribed by the RBI. SEBI has kept an open window for accepting applications under the RS framework, while the RBI will accept applications under theme-based cohorts. Further, RBI allows entities registered with it as well as other start-ups to apply for entry into RS. However, for the time being, SEBI has allowed only the entities registered under section 12 of SEBI Act to apply. Intermediaries that are registered under section 12 of SEBI Act are as follows:

  • stock broker
  • sub-broker
  • share transfer agent
  • banker to an issue
  • trustee of trust deed
  • registrar to an issue
  • merchant banker
  • underwriter
  • portfolio manager
  • investment adviser
  • depository
  • depository participant
  • custodian of securities
  • credit rating agencies
  • any other intermediary associated with the securities market

In the due course of time, SEBI may allow applications by other entities not registered with it.

Conclusion

Regulatory sandboxes were introduced with a motive to enhance the outreach and quality of FinTech services in the market and promote evolution of FinTech sector. Despite certain limitations, which can be overcome by using transparent procedures, developing well-defined principles and prescribing clear entry and exit criteria, the proposal is a promising one. It strives to strike a balance between financial stability and consumer protection along with beneficial innovation. It Is also likely to develop a market which supports a regulated environment for learning by doing in the scenario of emerging technologies.

 

 

[1] https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=46843

[2] https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationReportDetails.aspx?ID=938

 

Press Release: Central Bank of Nigeria appoints Vinod Kothari Consultants for review and drafting of law on securitisation

The Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN), apex banking authority of the Nigeria, has appointed Vinod Kothari Consultants Pvt. Ltd. (VKC) for review and drafting their domestic law to govern securitisation transactions. The initiative by the apex authority is a part of their Financial System Strategy 2020.

VKC is expected to facilitate enactment of the legislation and regulatory framework for deployment of Asset Backed Securities in banking and capital markets in Nigeria.

VKC has more than two decades of experience in structured finance in and outside India. Vinod Kothari, Director of the firm, is internationally recognised as a trainer, consultant and author on structured finance. In the past, VKC was appointed by the regulatory authorities of Sri Lanka and South Africa to assist them in drafting their law on securitisation.

Vinod Kothari quoted:

Nigeria is rich in natural resources, and is, therefore, a potential issue of future flows based securities. Additionally, the country is an emerging economic force, and therefore, needs to have world-class infrastructure of financial laws in place. In light of this, it is so heartening to get a chance to contribute to the development of securitisation in Nigeria.

Update 07.02.2019- Guidelines on Reporting and Monitoring of Frauds in HFCs

Guidelines on Reporting and Monitoring of Frauds in Housing Finance Companies

 

To facilitate the reporting and monitoring system relating to fraudulent transactions reported by HFCs, NHB issued “Guidelines on Monitoring of Frauds in Housing Finance Companies, 2018” (“Guidelines”) effective from February 05, 2019. The Guidelines shall apply to all Housing Finance Companies registered with the NHB.

Key responsibilities of HFCs

  1. Place a reporting system for recording frauds without any delay
  2. Fix staff accountability in respect of delays in reporting of fraud cases to the NHB.
  3. Adhere to the timeframe fixed for reporting frauds
  4. Nominate an official of the rank of General Manager or equivalent who will be responsible for submitting all the returns and reports to the NHB
  5. Take precautions to ensure that the cases reported by them are duly received by the NHB.
  6. Disclose the amount related to fraud, reported in the company for the year in their balance sheets.
  7. Quarterly Review of Fraud:
  • Information relating to frauds for the quarters ending March, June, September and December shall be placed before the Board of Directors during the quarter following the quarter to which it pertains.
  • Audit Committee of the Board of HFCs shall review and monitor the frauds involving an amount of Rs. 50 lakh and above
  1. Annual Review: HFCs should conduct an annual review of the frauds and place a note before the Board of Directors for information
  2. Make provisions, in case of accounts classified as ‘fraud’, to the full extent irrespective of the value of security.

Classification of fraud

In order to have uniformity in reporting, frauds have been classified as follows:

Fraud only when fraudulent intention is suspected / proved

 

Deemed to be treated as fraud (irrespective of the fraudulent intention)
a)      Negligence

b)      Cases of cash shortages of less than Rs. 10,000/-

c)      Irregularities in foreign exchange transactions

a)      Misappropriation and criminal breach of trust

b)      Fraudulent encashment through forged instruments, manipulation of books of account or through fictitious accounts and conversion of property

c)      Unauthorized credit facilities extended for reward or for illegal gratification.

d)      Cheating and forgery

e)      Cases of cash shortages more than Rs. 10,000/-

f)       Cases of cash shortages more than Rs. 5000/- if detected by management / auditor/inspecting officer and not reported on the occurrence by the persons handling cash.

g)      Any other type of fraud not coming under the specific heads as above

 

Reporting of Frauds

Reporting of fraud shall be done by referring to the following heads of frauds:

  1. Frauds involving – 1 lakh and above
  2. Frauds committed by unscrupulous borrowers
  3. Frauds involving t 1 crore and above
  4. Cases of attempted fraud

Following forms have been introduced for the purpose of reporting frauds:

 

FMR-1: Report on Actual or Suspected Frauds in HFCs

FMR-2: Report on Frauds Outstanding

FMR-3: Progress Report on Frauds of Rs. 1 lakhs and above

 

Our other relevant material of interests –

  1. http://vinodkothari.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Actionables-under-the-Fraud-Reporting-Framework-for-HFC.pdf
  2. http://vinodkothari.com/2019/11/faqs-on-fraud-reporting/

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